What Caused the Collapse of the Angkor Civilization

The fall of the Khmer Empire is a puzzle that archaeologists and historians have wrestled with for decades. The Khmer Empire, also known as the Angkor Civilization after its capital city, was a state-level society in mainland Southeast Asia between the 9th and 15th centuries AD. The empire was marked by enormous monumental architecture, extensive trade partnerships between India and China and the rest of the world, and an extensive road system. Most of all, the Khmer Empire is justifiably famous for its complex, vast, and innovative hydrologic system, water control built to take advantage of the monsoonal climate, and cope with the difficulties of living in a tropical rainforest. Tracing Angkors Fall The date for the empires traditional collapse is 1431 when the capital city was sacked by the competing Siamese kingdom at ​Ayutthaya. But the fall of the empire can be traced across a much longer period of time. Recent research suggests that a variety of factors contributed to the weakened state of the Empire before the successful sacking. Early Kingdoms: AD 100-802 (Funan)Classic or Angkorian Period: 802-1327Post-Classic: 1327-1863Fall of Angkor: 1431 The Angkor civilizations heyday began in AD 802 when King Jayavarman II united the warring polities collectively known as the early kingdoms. That classic period lasted more than 500 years, documented by internal Khmer and external Chinese and Indian historians. The period witnessed massive building projects and expansion of the water control system. After the rule of Jayavarman Paramesvara beginning in 1327, internal Sanskrit records stopped being kept and monumental building slowed and then ceased. A significant sustained drought occurred in the mid-1300s. Angkors neighbors also experienced troubled times, and significant battles took place between Angkor and neighboring kingdoms before 1431. Angkor experienced a slow but constant decline in population between 1350 and 1450 AD. Factors Contributing to the Collapse Several major factors have been cited as contributors to the demise of Angkor: war with the neighboring polity of Ayutthaya; conversion of the society to Theravada Buddhism; increasing maritime trade which removed Angkors strategic lock on the region; over-population of its cities; climate change bringing an extended drought to the region. The difficulty in determining the precise reasons for Angkors collapse lies in the lack of historical documentation. Much of Angkors history is detailed in Sanskrit carvings from the politys temples as well as reports from its trade partners in China. But documentation during the late 14th and early 15th centuries within Angkor itself fell silent. The Khmer Empires principal cities--Angkor, Koh Ker, Phimai, Sambor Prei Kuk--were engineered to take advantage of the rainy season, when the water table is right at ground surface and rain falls between 115-190 centimeters (45-75 inches) each year; and the dry season, when the water table drops up to five meters (16 feet) below the surface. To counteract the ill effects of this drastic contrast in conditions, the Angkorians constructed a vast network of canals and reservoirs, with at least one of these projects permanently changing the hydrology in Angkor itself. It was an immensely sophisticated and balanced system apparently brought down by a long-term drought. Evidence for a Long-Term Drought Archaeologists and paleo-environmentalists used sediment core analysis of soils (Day et al.) and dendrochronological study of trees (Buckley et al.) to document three droughts, one in the early 13th century, an extended drought between the 14th and 15th centuries, and one in the mid to late 18th century. The most devastating of those droughts was that during 14th and 15th centuries, when decreased sediment, increased turbidity, and lower water levels were present in Angkors reservoirs, compared to the periods before and after. The rulers of Angkor clearly attempted to remedy the drought using technology, such as at the East Baray reservoir, where a massive exit canal was first reduced, then closed off entirely during the late 1300s. Eventually, the ruling class Angkorians moved their capital to Phnom Penh and switched their main activities from inland crop growing to maritime trade. But in the end, the failure of the water system, as well as interrelated geopolitical and economic factors were too much to allow a return to stability. Re-Mapping Angkor: Size as a Factor Since Angkors rediscovery in the early 20th century by pilots flying over the densely overgrown tropical forest region, archaeologists have known that the urban complex of Angkor was large. The main lesson learned from a century of research has been that the Angkor civilization was much larger than anyone would have guessed, with an astounding five-fold increase in the number of identified temples in just the last decade. Remote sensing-enabled mapping along with archaeological investigations have provided detailed and informative maps which show that even in the 12th-13th centuries, the Khmer Empire was stretched across most of mainland Southeast Asia. In addition, a network of transportation corridors connected far-flung settlements to the Angkorian heartland. Those early Angkor societies profoundly and repeatedly transformed the landscapes. Remote-sensing evidence also shows that Angkors expansive size created serious ecological problems including over-population, erosion, loss of topsoil, and forest clearing. In particular, a large-scale agricultural expansion to the north and a growing emphasis on swidden agriculture increased erosion which caused sediments to build up in the extensive canal and reservoir system. This confluence led to declining productivity and increasing economic stress at all levels of society. All that was made worse by droughts. A Weakening However, a number of factors weakened the state besides climate change and declining regional instability. Although the state was adjusting their technology throughout the period, the people and societies in and outside of Angkor were in increasing ecological stress, particularly after the mid-14th-century drought. Scholar Damian Evans (2016) argues that one problem was that stone masonry was used only for religious monuments and water management features such as bridges, culverts, and spillways. The urban and agricultural networks, including the royal palaces, were made of earth and non-durable materials such as wood and thatch. So What Caused Khmers Fall? A century of research later, according to Evans and others, there still simply isnt enough evidence to pinpoint all factors which led to Khmers downfall. This is especially true today, in taking into account that the complexity of the region is only beginning to become clear. The potential is there, however, to identify the precise complexity of the human-environment system in monsoonal, tropical forested regions. The importance of identifying the social, ecological, geopolitical, and economic forces leading to the downfall of such an enormous, long-lived civilization is its application to today, where elite control of the circumstances surrounding climate change is not what it could be. Sources Buckley BM, Anchukaitis KJ, Penny D, Fletcher R, Cook ER, Sano M, Nam LC, Wichienkeeo A, Minh TT, and Hong TM. 2010. Climate as a contributing factor in the demise of Angkor, Cambodia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(15):6748-6752.Caldararo N. 2015. Beyond Zero Population: Ethnohistory, Archaeology and the Khmer, Climate Change and the Collapse of Civilizations. Anthropology 3(154).Day MB, Hodell DA, Brenner M, Chapman HJ, Curtis JH, Kenney WF, Kolata AL, and Peterson LC. 2012. Paleoenvironmental history of the West Baray, Angkor (Cambodia). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(4):1046-1051.Evans D. 2016. Airborne laser scanning as a method for exploring long-term socio-ecological dynamics in Cambodia. Journal of Archaeological Science 74:164-175.Iannone G. 2015. Release and reorganization in the tropics: a comparative perspective from southeast Asia. In: Faulseit RK, editor. Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization , and Transformation in Complex Societies. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. p 179-212.Lucero LJ, Fletcher R, and Coningham R. 2015. From ‘collapse’ to urban diaspora: the transformation of low-density, dispersed agrarian urbanism. Antiquity 89(347):1139-1154.Motesharrei S, Rivas J, and Kalnay E. 2014. Human and nature dynamics (HANDY): Modeling inequality and use of resources in the collapse or sustainability of societies. Ecological Economics 101:90-102.Stone R. 2006. The end of Angkor. Science 311:1364-1368.

The Representation Of Gender Masculinity - 1729 Words

The representation of gender in a masculine context in New Zealand is constructed through hegemonic constructions formed through colonisation. Due to being constructed by this dominant ideology, which in terms of a New Zealand context is Pakeha and male (Hegemony), the construction of masculinity appears natural. This hegemonic masculinity is so naturalised it becomes invisible and we don’t see or think about it. Law, R (1997) states that â€Å"The concept of hegemonic masculinity allows for us to theorise the simultaneous existence of different constructions of masculinity, the social dominance of some constructions and their legitimation as ‘natural’ and the fluid and contested character of all constructions of gender† Pakeha men are the hegemonic masculinity in a New Zealand context, they have social dominance over women and the Maori, even though they are same gender as Maori men due to colonization they are repressed in terms of dominance. Masculinity is ideological; it is embedded in culture and constructs gender. One is born as a sex, either female or male, which then leads to a representation of there gender, as in if you’re a man it is being masculine and a female being feminine, these expectations of gender have been embedded in society and determine traits and qualities that represent the two genders. This means we have to act in a certain way to show our gender or to be considered masculine or feminine and if you don’t fit into to these stereotypes, it can effectShow MoreRelatedRepresentations Of Gender And Masculinity1503 Words   |  7 PagesRepresentations of gender and masculinity in Pat Barker s Regeneration. One of the major themes in Pat barker’s ‘Regeneration’ is gender and masculinity, this is my chosen theme. The novel overall reflects the struggles of World War one soldiers and their attempts to overcome the trauma of war experience. 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The manhood acts in the film suppress women at the same time as they support the hegemonic masculinity, which is the masculinity that actively attempts to suppress women and inferior masculinities (Bird pg. 129). When the male characters in the movie do this, it approves of this negative behavior that limits the voiceRead MoreYet, A Reading Of Deleuze’S Concept Of ‘Becomings’ Enable1292 Words   |  6 Pagesleans between two polarized state: maturity and innocence. She experiences biological changes, inducing the maturation of her body with notably the swelling of hips and breast. This inevitable natural episode induces girls to prevailing female representation as she enters the stage of ‘to-be-lo oked-at-ness’. On the other hand, despite their womanly body, for their young age, the girls remain childlike minded which promises the men dominancy to remain unchallenged (American Girl 1999, Lolita). However

Lebanese Americans Free Essays

The present paper is designed to show the adaptation of immigrants in the United States. We will include Alison Lambert, who is the representative of the Lebanese nation, was born in Lebanon and moved to the United States country for permanent residence two years ago. The principal issue to clarify in this essay will be whether it was difficult for Mrs. We will write a custom essay sample on Lebanese Americans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Lambert to assimilate with US culture and people, what differences she has found between two cultures and how different cultural norms influence her living in the new for her country on the daily basis. Immigrants in America A lot of people from different countries come to the United States in search for their good future. There exists a myth that living in the United States is like a paradise, but it is not always so. The presidents of the United States together with other senators promote legislation to confer some kind of guest worker. Many people think that all those bills should not be accepted, because they are immoral. When they invite people from other countries to the United States they show them that they fit only for obsequious jobs that the Americans do not want to do. They think that they are too good for it. When foreigners start working in the United States at first they get miserable payment for the work they do. There is no expectation that you will rise up the economic and social ladder. There are a lot of bills all over the country which regulate rights of the guest worker. There are points when the foreigner can be expelled from the work and deported back to his country where he will continue his life in poverty. The bottom line in all of them is almost the same. It says that the Americans are not equal in their rights with other people who came from other countries to earn money. The plot is hidden but still it exists. America is a country that invites immigrants who arrived there legally and who comply with their laws and Constitution, who understand and can freely speak their language. Such people begin their career with low-paid jobs. But such people have a chance to rise into a middle class and realize their dream. Such countries as Germany and France showed their folly of a guest worker economy. Immigrants do low-paid jobs. But now there are a lot of people in these countries who don’t absorb. People do not agree with the social welfare system. Let’s find out more about the adaptation of the people from Arabic countries in the United States by telling a story about one of the immigrants from Lebanon, Mrs. Lambert. Mrs. Lambert considers family and close people to be the most important in her life. The principal difference in the family values between Lebanese and American culture is that when one is young, one never looks into the future considering oneself outside family. Family appears to be the core of everything they plan to accomplish in life. American society is more independent in relation to family as a notion. Lebanese people share everything they have with their families, and they grow surrounded by their family members. Their cousins, sisters, brothers, with whom they grow, often appear to be their best friends. Each of them knows that he or she is the most important person in his or her life, and she was used to grow in such surrounding. What she has noticed in the United States of America and what is absolutely absent in the Lebanese families, and in Lebanon in particular, is the disease which she would call ‘family’ disease. This is the disease which is very popular among American children. In her society family is something which will never let her and her countrymen down. She was very much assisted by her family members when she has first entered the United States. Now she is not only in constant touch with all her relatives, but all members of her family help each other on the daily basis to the maximal extent. Mrs. Lambert is a teacher; she feels at present that her cultural difference does not prevent her from effective working with the students and effectively performing in her daily life. Her first and probably, the biggest difficulty was the language. She had basic knowledge of the language, but it was not enough to teach students; and in order to acquire good position she had to learn it very fast. On the other hand, the accent is still very visible when she speaks and some students ask her about her origin. She was lucky not to see any discrimination in relation to her Lebanese identity on the side of her students. However, there are many Lebanese immigrants who also came to the United States to work and suffered from discrimination there. Most of native citizens are surprised on the fact of Lebanese very close family ties. When Mrs. Lambert tells the stories of her life, some of them cannot clearly understand the idea of family being the core of their lives, as well as that one can be so much connected with the family through all his or her life. Her assumption of the family norms influences her behavior on the daily basis, and it is doubtless; it becomes even more vivid in the light of the norms according to which one lives. When people immigrate they face different difficulties and challenges. The principal challenge for Mrs. Lambert is the difference itself, the difference in cultural norms. She doesn’t think there are disadvantages in her culture. She thinks that every culture has its own advantages and disadvantages. Still, when one comes to another country he or she is a foreigner. The language is the biggest challenge between any two different cultural identities. Mrs. Lambert was faced this challenge and almost coped with it. Yet, she clearly understands that many other cultural challenges are ahead of her. Mrs. Lambert thinks that it is important to assimilate with the culture of the country one now is living in. She supposes that this assimilation is inevitable; however, the extent to which this assimilation should take place with every newcomer should be reasonable. Mrs. Lambert’s family was afraid of her losing her identity on entering another country for the permanent residence; and it was probably one of her most important cultural challenges – to adjust to the new cultural surrounding without losing too much of her own cultural traditions. Assimilation with the cultural traditions of the other country often becomes the means of getting stable position and solid basis for human relations. When immigrants come to another country it is significant and highly important to have a source of strength and support there. It is necessary to have something which unite foreigners and help them feel a little bit be home. It may sound surprising, but yet family remains the principal source of support for her in the U.S. This is the peculiarity of her culture – not only is the family the stem of Lebanese identity, but it is also not influenced by the distance. She also gets a lot of support from the local Lebanese community. They have regular meetings during which they discuss urgent problems and issues, and try to find solutions beneficial for everyone. It is very often, that the members of the community ask for assistance in solving cultural problems, not only related to the language, but to the misunderstanding of the people they are surrounded by of their cultural preferences. Cultural identity at times becomes the matter of difficulty in getting assimilated to the new surrounding. Lebanese culture is not very well supported and popularized there, and it is often that Lebanese newcomers appear in cultural vacuum. Thus, this community and regular meetings become the means of supporting those who need this support. Very often people face personal misunderstanding with the native population, and they try to find the way out of the conflict. In the light of all above said, and taking into account the theories of cultural identity, it is possible to note the following. Cultural identity conflicts are usually called intractable, and thus, they are not possible to be resolved through the traditional approaches. The frames of the individual identity are extremely influenced by the cultural identity and cultural surrounding. The differences in culture often become the ground for the cultural conflict, as the difference in cultural ideas and preferences may be taken by the other side as not simply an outrageous idea, but ridiculous and unreal understanding of the world. For the better cultural communication it may be suggested, that the attitudes towards other cultures should be more tolerate. The cultural ideas and beliefs expressed by the representatives of the other culture should not be taken as unreal or unacceptable. Differences in culture between people will always exist, and thus for the more effective communication it is important to understand and accept the significance of the traditions, which are valued by the other culture, as well as try to better explain the traditions into which the newcomer would wish to assimilate. However, and what is more important, it is not allowed to break the cultural identity of the person; the difference in cultural views does not mean they are wrong. Conclusion The issue of cultural identity was always urgent, and with the growing opportunities for migration, this issue will not soon lose the necessity of being discussed. However, it is important to understand one thing in relation to cultural conflicts: the differences between cultures should not and won’t be erased; they should be treated with tolerance. In conclusion It is important to say that it is up to everyone to decide whether to lead a life of immigrant or not. There are a lot of possibilities to have a nice life in one’s own country where one will be respected. Nobody will look at him or her as if he or she is an alien. One’s country is one’s home one must be proud of it. Everyone must do everything possible to make one’s own country be respected. Escaping from problems at home and going abroad in search for good life and a great number of possibilities to realize oneself is not a way out. Works cited Carrithers, M. Why humans have cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1992 LeBaron, Michelle. Bridging cultural Conflicts: New Approaches for a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 2003 Mathews, G. Global culture/ Individual identity: Searching for home in the cultural supermarket. London: Routledge. 2000 Stone, Douglas F., Patton, Bruce, and Heen, Sheila. Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most New York: Penguin Press. 2000 How to cite Lebanese Americans, Essay examples

Variable Cost and New Conditioning Shampoo free essay sample

Bingham Corporation uses the weighted-average method in its process costing system. Data concerning the first processing department for the most recent month are listed below. Work in process, beginning: Units in beginning work-in-process inventory| 400| Materials costs| $6,900| Conversion costs| $2,500| Percentage complete for materials| 80%| Percentage complete for conversion| 15%| Units started into production during the month| 6,000| Units transferred to the next department during the month| 5,000| Materials costs added during the month| $112,500| Conversion costs added during the month| $210,300| Ending work in process: Units in ending work-in-process inventory| 1,200| Percentage complete for materials| 60%| Percentage complete for conversion| 30%| Required: Calculate the equivalent units for materials (using the weighted-average method) for the month in the first processing department. Axillar Beauty Products Corporation is considering the production of a new conditioning shampoo that will require the purchase of new mixing machinery. The machinery will cost $375,000, is expected to have a useful life of 10 years, and is expected to have a salvage value of $50,000 at the end of 10 years. We will write a custom essay sample on Variable Cost and New Conditioning Shampoo or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The machinery will also need a $35,000 overhaul at the end of Year 6. A $40,000 increase in working capital will be needed for this investment project. The working capital will be released at the end of the 10 years. The new shampoo is expected to generate net cash inflows of $85,000 per year for each of the 10 years. Axillars discount rate is 16%. Required: (a) What is the net present value of this investment opportunity? (b) Based on your answer to (a) above, should Axillar go ahead with the new conditioning shampoo? (Points : 35) | (TCO C) Nic Saybin Enterprises Accounting Department collects all pertinent monthly operating data. Selected data are presented below for the current month. From the data provided, please provide Saybin Enterprises Management with a flexible budget analysis to see how costs were controlled. | Actual Costs Incurred| Static Budget| Activity level (in units)| 754,009| 746,500| Variable Costs:| Indirect materials| $328,897| $325,640| Utilities| $174,332| $171,890| Fixed Costs:| General and administrative| $237,985| $244,908| Rent| $135,500| $135,000| (Points : 30) (TCO D) Lindon Company uses 4,500 units of Part X each year as a component in the assembly of one of its products. The company is presently producing Part X internally at a total cost of $69,000 as follows: Direct materials| $16,000| Direct labor| 18,000| Variable manufacturing overhead| 10,000| Fixed manufacturing overhead| 25,000| Total costs| $69,000| An outside supplier has offered to provide Part X at a price of $11 per unit. If Lindon stops producing the part internally, one third of the manufacturing overhead would be eliminated. Required: Prepare a make-or-buy analysis showing the annual advantage or disadvantage of accepting the outside suppliers offer.